Bureaucracies
are large administrative organizations. Today, approximately four million
Americans serve in federal bureaucracies, not counting that of state and local
government workers. The majority of government workers work in regional
offices. A third work for the armed forces or defense agencies. Bureaucracies have decreased in size since the nineties.
A bureaucracy
should have hierarchical authority,
where a chain of command from high-level officials to low-level officials
exists. Those higher in the organization have authority over those below them. Job specialization refers to explicitly
defined duties for each job position and yields efficiency as an individual
dedicated to a particular job becomes proficient at it. Formalized rules ensure that a bureaucracy follows established
procedures and regulations so judgments can be quick and consistent.
The fifteen cabinet (executive) departments each are led by a
secretary, except for the Justice Department, which is led by the attorney
general. The President with consent of the Senate appoints the secretaries.
Departments can have semiautonomous operating units. The Department of Justice
for example has the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Tax Division, and the
Drug Enforcement Administration.
Regulatory agencies are legislative in
function in developing law-like regulations and judicial in determining whether
individuals or organizations are complying with them. The Environmental
Protection Agency can impose fines and other penalties for violations of
environmental regulations.
Government corporations receive federal
funding and have directors appointed by the president with Senate approval. The
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) insures individuals against bank
failures, and the National Railroad Corporation (Amtrak) provides passenger
rail service. The largest government corporation is the U.S. Postal Service, which
has roughly 700,000 employees.
Independent agencies resemble the
cabinet departments but have a narrower area of responsibility. They include
the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA); the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA); and The National Science Foundation, which supports
scientific research and development. The president appoints the heads of these
agencies, but they are not members of the cabinet. The Consumer
Financial Protection Bureau is an independent agency that was established
in 2011 to ensure transparency in mortgages, credit cards, and other consumer
financial services.
Presidential commissions provide advice
to the president. Some of them are permanent bodies. Others disband after
making recommendations on specific issues.
Starting with
Andrew Jackson, appointments were given to people who supported elected
officials. This was labeled the spoils
system. In 1883, Congress passed the Pendleton
Act, which established a merit system for certain positions. Today, merit
positions make up more than 90% of the federal workforce.
Policy implementation is a key role of
bureaucracies. Bureaucracies tend to have discretionary authority in many
areas. The Federal Commissions Commission (FCC)
has a broad mandate to regulate various forms of communication. For a lengthy
period, the FCC required broadcasters to adhere to a fairness standard.
Bureaucrats are most responsive to a view called the agency point of view, which is focused on the needs of the agency
in which they work in. Bureaucrats have the power of expertise, as they tend to be experts in their particular
policy area. Clientele groups have
power when they lobby with the government agencies that have dominions that
concern them. These relationships tend to be mutual, and don’t exist elsewhere
where interests aren’t as specialized.
The budgetary process of government
agencies begins with the Office of Management and Budget (OMG), situated in the
Executive Office of the President. Agencies receive guidelines through which to
work with to make budget proposals (Spring). The president then works on the
margins of the budget proposals in combining them for a presidential budget
proposal for Congress (next January). The proposal goes to the House and Senate
budget committees, which recommend overall spending and revenue levels. The
work then goes to the House and Senate appropriations committees. Subcommittees
have responsibilities for particular policy areas, such as defense or agriculture.
Subcommittees may cut an agency’s budget or increase it. Throughout this
process, the House and Senate rely on the Congressional Budget Office.
Bureaucratic accountability is the
degree to which bureaucrats are held accountable. Through the presidency,
bureaucracy can be put through reorganization.
In 2004, the Office for the Director of National Intelligence was created,
which fifteen intelligence agencies now report to. Presidents rely on their presidential appointees, who hold top
positions in every agency. The Office of Management and Budget has substantial
control over the funding and budget of each agency. Congress holds
accountability through the courts. Within the bureaucracy itself, there is the Senior Executive Service (SES), which
comprises of top-level career servants who cannot be fired. Administrative law judges handle cases where
individuals contest bureaucrats for certain decisions that they felt were
disadvantageous for them. Whistleblowing
is the act of reporting instances of official mismanagement. Demographic representatives officials
who are hired to be representative of the demographic groups they serve.
The Hatch Act was passed in 1939 to prevent government officials from using public funds or public works for electoral purposes and protected government employees from being fired on partisan grounds. It also prevents government officials from taking part in others' campaigns.
The iron triangle network is a pattern of
relationships between an agency in the executive branch, Congress, and special interest
groups lobbying that agency. Corruption can result if interest groups find a
way to please those in power.
