Interest Groups Synthesis

Interest groups have grown to be a key, if not the most influential, linkage institution in America. An interest group is an organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at several points to try to achieve these goals. Interest groups are distinct from parties. Political parties fight election battles; interest groups do not field candidates for office, but they may choose sides. Interest groups are policy specialists; political parties are policy generalists. Politicians are often experts at politics but not policy.

There are multiple theories of interest group politics:

1) The pluralist theory says that politics is mainly a competition among groups; each one pressing for its own preferred politics. “…society is best seen as a collection of special interests and is best served by a process that serves a wide array of those interests”.

2) The elite theory says that societies are divided among class lines and an upper elite class rules, regardless of the formal processes of governmental organization.

3) The hyperpluralist theory says that groups are so strong and interests so diverse and conflictual that government is weakened.

In pluralism, or group theory, groups provide a key link between the people and the government. The theory suggests that due to fair group competition, no one group will ever dominate. Groups play by the “rules of the game”: Groups weak in one resource may use another, while lobbying is open to all so it is not a problem.

The elite theory denies pluralism by saying that real power is held by the relatively few. The largest corporations hold the most power; they command the most resources and can claim that their success is necessary for the health of the overall economy. Elite power is fortified by a system of interlocking directorates of these corporations and other institutions. Other groups may win many minor policy battles, but elites prevail when it comes to big policy decisions.

Hyperpluralism suggests that there are subgovernments, networks of groups that exercise a great deal of control over specific policy areas. These consist of interest groups, government agency, and congressional committees that handle particular policies, forming what are also known as iron triangles. The hyperpluralist critique says that groups have become too powerful as the government tries to appease every interest. Having many subgovernments (iron triangles) aggravates the process. Interest groups can give strong electoral support to Congress and funding and political support to bureaucracy who give low regulation and special favors to interest groups.

Interest groups can have varying levels of effectiveness. A potential group is all the people who might be interest group members because they share a common interest. An interest group has high start-up costs: large investment by a small few necessary to take collective action. This brings up the free-rider problem, when some people don’t join because they can benefit from the group without joining. The bigger the group is, the larger the problem is.

Large interest groups are difficult to organize. Olson’s theory of large groups says, “The larger the group, the further it will fall short of providing an optimal amount of a collective good”. Thus, the larger they are, the less united on policy. Small groups are subsequently more organized and more focused than large groups. Multinational corporations are successful because there are few of them and, therefore, have an easier time organizing for political action. Customer groups have a difficult time getting significant policy gains because the benefits are spread over the entire population.

The intensity of the issue helps determine its success. Single-issue groups are groups that focus on a narrow interest, dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics. Groups may focus on an emotional issue, providing them with a psychological advantage. Intensity encourages non-conventional means of participation. Money is another major factor; interest groups backed by financial institutions have a much higher chance of success than interest groups without much financial backing.

Lobbying is a major force within interest groups. Inside lobbying is the use of close connections with policymakers. Outside lobbying is the placing of constituency pressure on policymakers. Lobbyists are a source of information, help politicians plan political strategies for reelection campaigns, and are a source of ideas and innovations. The USDA approved drug-filled milk because of lobbyists.

Electioneering involves direct group involvement in the election process. Political Action Committees (PACs) are political funding vehicles used by interest groups to donate money. Donations to particular candidates capped at $5000/year. Most PAC money goes to incumbents. Super PACs allow unlimited monetary contributions from individuals and organizations. The subtle difference between the two is that super PACs cannot coordinate directly with campaigns. However, super PACs still pay for TV ads supporting issues and attacking rivals.

If an interest group fails in one area, courts may be able to provide a remedy. Interest groups can file amicus curiae briefs to influence a court’s decision. Amicus curiae refer to briefs submitted by a “friend of the court” to raise additional points of view and present information not contained in the briefs of the formal parties. Class action lawsuits can also permit a small number of people to collectively sue.

Groups use public opinion to influence policymakers. Interest groups may focus on economic interests such as labor, agriculture, and business. Nearly two-thirds of lobby groups in Washington are business related. Ideological groups are driven by deeply held beliefs to lobby on a number of related issues: NOW, NAACP. An environmental group is Greenpeace. A consumer and public interest lobby is the Better Business Bureau.

Lowi argues the public interest is not upheld if the system gives special interests the ability to determine policies affecting them, particularly if they go against what public opinion supports. This is the counter-argument to interest group pluralism.

Political Behavior Mass Synthesis

 PUBLIC OPINION

Public opinion: politically relevant opinions held by ordinary citizens that they express openly. Political socialization: the process by which individuals acquire their political opinions. Political culture refers to the characteristic and deep-seated beliefs of a particular people about government and politics. Americans are unusually committed to “liberty, equality, and self-government”. Most people’s political beliefs are formed in childhood from their parents. Political socialization is cumulative: people’s beliefs affect how information is interpreted. Political socialization takes place through agents of socialization.

Primary agents interact closely and regularly usually early in life. Children place trust in what their parents say, thus, many adults today are Republicans or Democrats wholly because their parents were the same. Schools often emphasize America’s greatest moments. Schools in the US open with The Pledge of Allegiance, where students pledge their national loyalty. Although not a majority, many children attend church regularly, which can shape beliefs about society’s obligations to the poor and unborn.

Secondary agents have a less intimate connection and usually have a larger effect later in life. The media has an agenda-setting effect, where people tend to believe topics emphasized by the media are the most important. People in authority are sources of opinion (George bush on attacking Afghanistan after 911)

Frames of reference are important because they 1) offer an indication of how people think politically and 2) provide a common cause, which can result in strength in numbers. Frames of reference include party identification and political ideology. Party Identification refers to a person’s ingrained sense of loyalty to a political party. Most self-described independents have a partisan tendency. Younger people are most likely to switch loyalties, which can happen in the context of momentous upheaval (increase in Democrats in response to the New Deal). Selective perception is the process whereby people selectively choose from incoming information points that support what they already believe. The Democratic Party has supported social welfare and workers’ rights policies, and has many union workers supporting it. The Republican Party has supported pro-business and tax-reduction policies, and has many people in business supporting it. Democrats are more likely to support government assistance for the poor, toughening environmental laws. Republicans are more likely to oppose same-sex marriage and support strengthening the military.

People have a political ideology if they hold to a coherent set of beliefs. Farmers do not have a true political ideology because they tend to oppose assistance to the economically vulnerable unless they are the recipients. A looser definition applies to more Americans. Economic liberals believe the government should play a substantial role in the distribution of economic benefits, working to make sure the less advantaged get a fair share of society’s wealth. Economic conservatives believe the government should leave the distribution of economic benefits alone. Social liberals would leave lifestyle choices to the individual (same-sex marriage, abortion, school prayer, criminal justice). Social conservatives use the government to promote traditional values. A libertarian is economically conservative but socially liberal. A populist is economically liberal but socially conservative. When the US economy went into a recession in 2008, many motor Americans said in polls that they wanted government assistance to the economically disadvantaged. When Ronald Reagan was in office, many more people supported leaving the economy alone.

Group Orientation

Religion

Fundamentalist and Roman Catholics tend to oppose abortion, while Protestants and Jews are pro-choice. Catholics and Jews tend to support poverty programs, while Protestants and Jews believe more in self-reliance. The religious right consists of Christians who believe that the Bible is an infallible truth; they thus have very differing opinions from the rest of population as a whole.

Economic Class

Lower-income Americans are more likely to support welfare assistance programs and business regulation. Higher-income Americans are ore supportive of tax cuts. People with similar incomes but different occupations do not share the same views. Support for collective bargaining is higher among factory workers than other people of the same income. However, labor unions have become less supportive of Democrats in recent years due to their failure to help pass collective bargaining legislation.

Region

For a period in U.S. history, the North and South were divided over the issues of race and states’ rights. Regional differences continue to exist on some issues, including social welfare and civil rights. Red states (Republican bastions) are clustered in the South, Great Plains, and Rocky Mountains. Blue states are (Democratic bastions) are found mostly in the Northeast, the northern Midwest, and the West Coast.

Race and Ethnicity

Blacks and Hispanics are more supportive of affirmative action and less trusting of police and the judicial system than are non-Hispanic whites. Blacks are also more likely to request economic assistance programs, although this relates to income and education levels.

Gender

Women differ with men by about 10 percentage points on support for affirmative action. Women care more about social welfare issues. Women tend to have more liberal opinions on these issues, because of their greater economic vulnerability and their greater role in childcare. Women were 20% more likely than men to favor spending on public education. Men are more likely than women to support the use of military force (Iraq and Afghanistan).

Generations and Age

Americans who came of age during WWII have a greater sense of civic duty than any other American generation that came before or since. Americans who came of age during the Vietnam War were more distrustful of the government. Americans of different ages respond differently to age-related policies (younger people support increased education spending more than older people).

The Measurement of Public Opinion

In a public opinion poll, relatively few individuals — the sample — are interviewed in order to estimate the opinions of a whole population. If residents are chosen at random from a population, their opinions will approximate those of the population as a whole. The size of the sample matters in determining the accuracy of the estimates. The degree to which a sample estimates might differ from what the population actually thinks is the sampling error. A properly drawn study of about 1000 individuals has a sampling error of roughly plus or minus 3 percent. In 1936 the Gallup Organization stopped polling several weeks before the 1948 election and missed a later voter shift that led Harry Truman to victory. Problems with polls. Some Americans do not have phones, and some Americans will not be at home when called or refuse to participate. Sometimes respondents may answer questions on unfamiliar issues to appear uninformed — these are labeled “non-opinions”. Interviewees will sometimes give what they view as the “socially appropriate response”: although voter turnout rarely exceeds 60%, 75% or more of respondents will claim they have voted. The “Bradley effect”: tendency for a black candidate to receive fewer votes than the polls predict (although things have improved — Obama). Question order and wording can also affect poll results.

The Influence of Public Opinion on Policy

Some believe that the government should take into account the opinions the public holds. Others argue that public opinion is too whimsical and uninformed to form the basis of a sound government. Public opinion is mostly seen as strongly affecting policymakers, although it varies across situations and issues. There are limits on the public’s influence: Americans tend to want a balanced federal budget, yet they are not supportive of the measures that balance it (increased taxes, lower social security and defense spending). Americans also tend to be politically uninformed, which makes complex issues hard for people to form sound opinions on. Opinions on some issues are so settled that officials will likely not succeed trying to work against them. The greater the level of public involvement, the likelier the policy will shift towards public opinion. Leaders have a degree of discretion on decisive action for the economy. On issues that fail to attract widespread attention, leaders have considerable room to maneuver. Leaders can influence public opinion to match their public policy. Over a six-month period, when Bush pressed for war, public support for war gradually increased. Thus, public opinion tends to affect policy to a greater degree than policymaker’s agendas affect public opinion.

VOTER PARTICIPATION

At the nation’s founding, suffrage was limited to property-owning white males. Women did not get to vote until 1920, from 19^th Amendment. African Americans got the right to vote in the 15^th Amendment. Afterwards, poll taxes, whites-only primaries, rigged literacy tests made it still unequal. In 1971, the 26^th Amendment extended voting rights to include citizens eighteen years of age or older, where the previous limit was 21.

Factors in Voter Turnout: The United States in Comparative Perspective

Since the 1960s, voter turnout has averaged about 55 percent in presidential elections. Midterm election turnout has not reached 50% since 1920 and has hovered around 40% in recent decades. In local elections, 20% of eligible voters participate. Voter participation in the US is lower than in other countries. Registration began around the 1900s to prevent duplicate votes. State governments traditionally set registration requirements. Restrictive laws in the US lead to lower turnout rates compared to European countries. States with more restrictive laws have lower turnout rates. In 1993, Congress enacted the motor voter law to allow people to register when applying for a driver’s license or public assistance. Voter ID laws have been enacted in a few states, with the example of photo ID requirements decreasing voter turnout especially for poorer people who can’t afford a passport or driver’s license. American elections are more frequent than in European nations, which increases the likelihood that American voters will not vote every time. Elections in the United States are traditionally held on Tuesday, where Americans would have to find time outside of work, versus a holiday or weekend day in other countries.

Why Some Americans Vote and Others Do Not

Education and Income

People who have received higher levels of education and have higher income have above-average voting rates; these people have the financial resources and communication skills that encourage participation and make voting rewarding. Europeans with less income don’t vote as less as Americans with less income; the difference can be attributed to the United States not having a socialist or labor party. Americans with less income and education are also adversely affected by the registration system.

Age

Young adults are much less likely to vote than middle-aged and older citizens. In the 2004 and 2008 presidential elections, turnout among younger voters increased substantially, due to many young people opposing the Bush administration’s conduct of the Iraq War. Older people, who have children and homes, are also more likely to feel the effects of election outcomes.

Civic Attitudes

Apathy, or a lack of interest in politics, affects some citizens. Others refrain because of alienation, the belief that government pays no attention to their interests. Some Americans have a sense of civic duty, the belief that they should participate in public affairs. Civic duty and apathy are both attitudes that are usually acquired from parents. When the Democratic Party took the lead on civil rights issues in the 1960s, many working-class white Democrats simply stopped voting instead of switching to the other party.

The four main linkage institutions are political parties, elections, the media, and interest groups.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Political parties are the means to achieve “who gets when, what, how, and why”. The nature of the party system is competitive. A Party must be looked at as on organization, at its relationship with the electorate, and its role in government.

The Two Parties

Party Eras

The first party era (1828-1860) constituted of the Democrats dominating the presidency and Congress. The second period (1860-1932) was the Republican era. The third era (1932-1968) contributed to the success of the New Deal and was led by the Democrats. The fourth period (1968-present) has been called the era of divided government: characterized by one party holding the presidency and an opposition party in one or both houses of Congress. The 2008 presidential election saw a short-lived emergence of a one-party rule by the Democrats; this ended with the 2010 midterm elections when the Republicans regained control of the House of Representatives.

Party Realignment

Party realignment is the shift of party loyalty. This occurred once in 1932 after the Great Depression, where the public turned to the New Deal policies of Franklin Roosevelt. Roosevelt’s New Deal was similar to Kennedy’s New Frontier, and Johnson’s Great Society. The growth of the federal government and social programs became part of the Democratic platform.

Period of Divided Government

The Watergate scandal and Nixon’s resignation in 1974 saw a weakened GOP and the eventual loss by Gerald Ford to Jimmy Carter in 1976. Reagan attracted a Democratic base of middle-class workers to his candidacy. From 1981 to 1986 the Republicans were able to control the Senate. There was an emergence of an ideological party era with the election of Bill Clinton in 1992. Although Clinton had a democratic majority in both houses during his first term, passing legislation faced conflict due to liberals, moderates and conservatives not always voting on party lines.

Third Parties

Third parties, although knowing they have virtually no chance of winning, still wage a vocal campaign. Third political parties are ideological, single-issue oriented, economically motivated, and personality driven. People gradually moving away from their parties had become more of a trend in today’s view of party loyalty. Ross Perot gained 20% of the popular vote in the 1992 election, although he did not get any electoral votes. In 1996 he ran again with United We Stand but got less than 10% of the popular vote

Party Dealignment

Party dealignment, or people gradually moving away from their parties to become independents, has become more of a trend in today’s view of party loyalty. The shift of traditional Southern Democrats to the Republican Party came about because many voters perceived the Republicans as a more conservative party than the Democrats.

The Tea Party

The Tea Party emerged out of old Republican leaders and successfully defeated many Republican Senators and Congressmen in primaries. The Tea Party later supported many Republican gubernatorial and congressional candidates, contributing to the success of the Republicans in the 2010 midterms. The Tea Party supports lower federal power, balancing the national budget through spending cuts (“generational theft”), personal responsibility vs. handouts, and no excessive taxes.

Organization

The role of the party caucus and party primary has grown in importance. The role of the national convention is to publicize the party’s position. After the disastrous 1968 Democratic Convention, the McGovern-Frasier Commission brought significant representation changes to the party, making future conventions more democratic. In 1982 another reform was made to make 15% of the delegates superdelegates, made up of party leaders and elected party officials. The Republicans made reforms to regenerate party identification after the 1992 Republican Convention was said to be dominated by conservatives

The national committee is the governing body of the political party. It responds to the direction of the national chairperson. The presidential candidates nominated at the convention select the national chairperson.

The future is not bright for political parties. More and more people are calling themselves independents. More and more ticket splitting (where people don’t vote by party alignment, but for individual candidates) has taken place. The impact of the media on the campaign has weakened has weakened the ability of the party to convey its message to the people. Special interest groups and PACs have reduced the need for elected officials to use traditional party resources.